The Sarasvati River held as deep and vast a significance in ancient Indian civilization as its mythological stature suggests. In the Rigveda, it is glorified as “Ambitame, Naditame, Devitame Sarasvati”, and revered as the goddess of knowledge, art, and spiritual consciousness. For a long time, Sarasvati was considered merely a mythological river, but modern scientific research—including satellite imagery, geological analysis, and archaeological excavations—has established it as a geographical reality.
Scholars like S.P. Gupta and B.B. Lal date the composition of the Rigveda to before 3500 BCE, following the river’s emergence. The Rigveda mentions Sarasvati more than 72 times, describing it as a mighty river flowing between the Indus and Yamuna. One verse reads: “Aa yat sākam yaśaso vāvaśānāḥ Sarasvati saptathi Sindhu-mātā”, indicating that Sarasvati, mother of rivers including the Indus, flowed with immense water and speed. Another verse, “Imam me Gange Yamune Sarasvati, Shutudri stomam sachata Parushnyaa”, places Sarasvati in equal stature with the Ganges and Yamuna, underlining its religious, cultural, and economic importance in the Indus Valley Civilization.
The first formal academic attention to the Sarasvati River came in 1844 from Major F. Markham of the British government, who, while surveying a secure highway from Delhi to Sindh, discovered a dry riverbed wide enough to accommodate eight parallel roads. In 1869, archaeologist Alexander Cunnigham found Himalayan alluvial deposits in the Gulf of Khambhat, associating them with the Rigvedic Sarasvati. British geologists C.F. Oldham and R.D. Oldham of the Geological Survey of India traced a paleo-river course in the Thar Desert in 1874 and later in 1893 identified it with the Sarasvati described in the Rigveda. Further recognition followed from archaeologists like John Marshall (1931) and Aurel Stein (1942).
In 1952, Dr. Krishnan suggested that Sarasvati was a massive river in 5000 BCE. Archaeological excavations from the 1960s onward revealed that major Indus Valley sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Banawali, Rakhigarhi, and Dholavira were located along or near the ancient Sarasvati’s course—particularly near the Ghaggar-Hakra basin. Though now a seasonal stream, satellite images have revealed a wide, ancient riverbed—up to 10 kilometers wide—indicating a mighty river once flowed here.
One of the most significant modern surveys was led by Padma Shri V.S. Wakankar in collaboration with the Baba Saheb Apte Committee (now Akhil Bharatiya Itihas Sankalan Yojana). He initiated the “Sarasvati Yatra” on 19 November 1985 from Adi Badri (Haryana) and concluded at Prabhas Patan (Gujarat) on 20 December, covering nearly 4000 kilometers. This journey traced the dry channels of the Sarasvati and studied the ancient settlements along its banks.
Satellite imagery and geophysical surveys have been crucial. In 2003, ISRO confirmed that the Ghaggar-Hakra follows the path of an extinct river. In 2006, BARC found underground freshwater streams in Jaisalmer and Bikaner, possibly remnants of a great river. In 2021, CSIR-NGRI concluded that tributaries like the Yamuna and Sutlej once merged into the Sarasvati but later shifted course due to tectonic changes, causing the Sarasvati to dry up.
The drying process likely began around 4000 years ago due to tectonic shifts that diverted the Sutlej westward and the Yamuna eastward, cutting off the river’s main water supply. This aligns with the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, suggesting that dwindling water sources may have led to the collapse of a once-thriving culture.
Archaeological evidence is clear. At Kalibangan (Rajasthan), irrigation systems have been found, indicating a sustained water source. Rakhigarhi (Haryana), the largest Harappan site in India, revealed paved roads, drainage systems, copper tools, cosmetics, and skeletons. Sites like Banawali and Lothal show evidence of docks and reservoirs, highlighting their economic and urban sophistication.
Historical texts and foreign travelers also bear witness. The Mahabharata and Bhagavata Purana describe Sarasvati’s sanctity and power. Al-Biruni, visiting India in the 11th century, referred to it as a “once-mighty river” now vanished.
In modern times, various projects aim to revive the Sarasvati. The Haryana government’s Sarasvati Heritage Board has begun excavation of old channels and initiated water flow in some areas. Central government bodies like the Ministry of Jal Shakti and CSIR are conducting in-depth studies to locate water sources. Religious sites like Kurukshetra, Adi Badri, and Pehowa are being integrated for cultural revitalization.
However, criticisms remain. Some historians argue that the Sarasvati of the Rigveda refers to smaller rivers like the Ghaggar or Tangri and that the evidence is inconclusive. Yet the growing body of satellite, hydrological, and archaeological data is gradually transforming this perspective.
Key archaeologists and scientists have played instrumental roles in establishing the historical and geological continuity of the Sarasvati:
Dr. B.B. Lal, former Director-General of ASI, excavated Kalibangan and the Ghaggar valley. In his book The Sarasvati Flows On, he documents the cultural continuity between the Harappan and Vedic periods.
Dr. R.S. Bisht led excavations at Banawali and Dholavira, analyzing urban planning and water systems.
Dr. S.R. Rao of the National Institute of Oceanography excavated Lothal, revealing its maritime links.
Dr. J.P. Joshi worked at Rakhigarhi and Mohenjo-daro, changing the lens through which the Indus-Sarasvati civilization is viewed.
Dr. Vivek Dhaneshwar from the GSI helped map the ancient course using geological and satellite data.
Dr. A.S. Gupta studied Banawali and unearthed urban structures and religious artifacts.
Dr. Vasudev Sharan Agrawal linked Vedic texts to the river’s trajectory.
Dr. Satish Chandra Goswami of Rajasthan University integrated geography and archaeology in his Sarasvati studies.
The most recent and significant excavation took place in Bahaj village, Deeg district, Rajasthan between January 2024 and June 2025. Conducted by ASI, the excavation reached a depth of 23 meters and uncovered a paleo-channel likely linked to the ancient Sarasvati. Over 800 artifacts were discovered, including metal tools, pottery, yajna kunds, terracotta images of Shiva-Parvati, early Brahmi seals, Painted Grey Ware (PGW) layers, bone tools, spiritual artifacts, and trade beads.
This site is now described as the second-largest excavation project in Rajasthan, confirming that Bahaj was a vital water and cultural center during Vedic times. The presence of iron-copper metallurgy further indicates advanced craftsmanship. The ASI Jaipur Circle collaborated with IGNCA, ISRO, and GSI, forming a multidisciplinary team from geological surveys to lab analyses. Findings confirmed a continuous cultural presence from the Vedic to pre-Vedic periods, marking Bahaj as a rich, multi-period cultural node.
The paleo-channel, yajna altars, Brahmi seals, PGW layers, and metallurgical remains establish Bahaj’s place in the Indus-Sarasvati Civilization network. Religious traditions, trade, and craftsmanship found here further support this claim.
Several researchers have published significant works:
B.B. Lal’s The Sarasvati Flows On (2002) argues for cultural continuity between Harappan and Vedic eras.
K.S. Valdiya’s Saraswati: The River That Disappeared (2000) and Ek Thi Saraswati Nadi (2010) offer geological and satellite-based insights.
Amal Kar’s Identification and Mapping of the Saraswati River System (2021) reviews ISRO and Survey of India data.
Michel Danino’s The Lost River (2010) combines textual and archaeological evidence while questioning the Aryan Invasion Theory.
Dilip Chakrabarti and Sukhdev Saini’s The Problem of the Sarasvati River (2009) presents a geographical survey of archaeological sites in Haryana and Punjab.
S. Kalyanaraman’s Sarasvati: Civilization (2003) explores archaeological, cultural, and tourism aspects.
Dr. Ratnesh Kumar Tripathi’s Saraswati Nadi Ghati: Sabhyata evam Sanskriti (2023) is a comprehensive compilation of Sarasvati-linked facts.
In conclusion, the ongoing excavations and research not only bridge the divide between Sarasvati’s mythological reverence and historical authenticity but offer a comprehensive scientific, archaeological, geological, and cultural framework. The revival of Sarasvati is more than restoring a river—it is the resurgence of civilizational memory and cultural identity. With sustained research and institutional effort, we may soon see the Sarasvati not only in scriptures but flowing once again across the land.
— Assistant Professor, Department of History, Satyawati College (Morning), University of Delhi
