The word ‘Deepawali’ (Diwali) is derived from two Sanskrit words, ‘Deepa’ and ‘Avali’. ‘Deepa’ means a lamp that provides light, while ‘Avali’ means a row or series. Today, this festival is associated with the worship of Goddess Lakshmi, the invocation of Lord Ganesha, lighting of lamps, distribution of sweets, family gatherings and fireworks. Its religious narratives and rituals also vary across different regions. However, from a historical perspective, it would not be appropriate to assume that all these traditions originated or became popular at the same time. The Diwali celebrations observed today have evolved into their present form over several centuries.
The religious significance of fire and light can be traced back to the Vedic period. The very first hymn of the Rigveda invokes Agni, the god of fire:
अग्निमीळे पुरोहितं यज्ञस्य देवमृत्विजम्।
होतारं रत्नधातमम्॥
(Rigveda, Mandala 1, Sukta 1, Mantra 1)
This means: “I praise Agni, the priest of the sacrifice, the divine minister of the ritual, the invoker and the bestower of treasures.” Although this mantra does not describe Diwali, it clearly reflects the religious and auspicious significance of fire in Vedic tradition. From the sacrificial fire of Vedic rituals to the lamps lit in households, light has continued to hold an important place in Hindu religious life.
In the Upanishads, the meaning of light extends beyond physical illumination and becomes associated with knowledge and self-realisation. A famous prayer from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad states:
असतो मा सद्गमय।
तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय।
मृत्योर्मामृतं गमय॥
(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 1.3.28)
It means: “Lead me from untruth to truth, from darkness to light, and from death to immortality.” This prayer helps us understand the philosophical dimension of Deepawali. Here, light is not merely the flame of a lamp; it also symbolises wisdom, discernment and righteous conduct in human life.
An important reference in the history of Deepotsav appears in Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra, which mentions a festival known as ‘Yaksharatri’. Historian P. K. Gode examined the possible relationship between Yaksharatri and the later tradition of Deepawali in his research. Hemachandra, in his work Deshinamamala, also associated Yaksharatri with Deepawali or Deepamalika. On this basis, it has been considered an indication of an older festival tradition involving the lighting of lamps. However, Yaksharatri should be understood as a possible precursor to Deepawali rather than as an established equivalent of the modern festival.
A more explicit literary reference to the celebration of lights during the month of Kartika is found in the Nilamata Purana of Kashmir. This text identifies Kartika Amavasya (the new moon day of the Kartika month) as an occasion for the celebration of Deepamala. It also refers to the practice of lighting lamps and playing dice on this occasion. The Nilamata Purana is an important source for understanding the religious customs, festivals and regional traditions of ancient Kashmir. Scholar P. K. Gode studied the relationship between the festival of ‘Sukhasuptika’, described in this text, and the modern celebration of Diwali. These references indicate that the tradition of celebrating Kartika Amavasya by lighting lamps was already prevalent in ancient times.
References to Deepotsav become more explicit in Sanskrit literature from the seventh century CE. In Emperor Harshavardhana’s play Nagananda, there is a reference to ‘Deepapratipadotsava’. The passage describes the tradition of exchanging gifts on the occasion of the festival. This literary reference provides evidence of a contemporary custom of celebrating festivals associated with the lighting of lamps. Sanskrit plays often portray cities, royal palaces, festivities and social life. Such literary works therefore also provide valuable insights into the cultural practices of their times.
A detailed description of Deepotsav appears in the Yashastilaka Champu, composed by the tenth-century Jain scholar Somadeva Suri. The text mentions the whitewashing of buildings, the decoration of tall mansions with rows of lamps, music, entertainment and dice-playing. This description offers a glimpse of the festive atmosphere in towns during that period. The celebration is not confined to a single religious narrative. It also reflects the collective enthusiasm and social life of the people.
Medieval literature also contains references to Deepawali and Deepamalika. Rajasekhara’s Kavyamimamsa and the works of Hemachandra are useful sources for studying this tradition. These literary references indicate that the names, rituals and regional forms associated with the festival continued to develop over time.
The Puranas provide a more elaborate account of the religious observances associated with Deepawali. The Padma Purana and the Skanda Purana describe the significance of lighting lamps during the month of Kartika. Various Puranic texts also refer to Yama Deepadan, the worship of Goddess Lakshmi and traditions associated with Lord Vishnu. There are differences in the details of dates and rituals across these texts. The prescribed dates for lamp offerings also vary according to different religious traditions and regional calendars.
To understand the philosophical dimension of Deepawali, the following verse from the Katha Upanishad is particularly significant:
न तत्र सूर्यो भाति न चन्द्रतारकं,
नेमा विद्युतो भान्ति कुतोऽयमग्निः।
तमेव भान्तमनुभाति सर्वं,
तस्य भासा सर्वमिदं विभाति॥
(Katha Upanishad, 2.2.15)
It means: “There the sun does not shine, nor do the moon and stars. Neither does lightning illuminate that place, so how could ordinary fire do so? Everything shines after that supreme light, and by its radiance, all this is illuminated.” This mantra expresses the philosophical concept of the supreme light in Hindu thought.
Along with literary sources, inscriptions also provide historical evidence of the tradition of Deepotsav. An important example is a Western Chalukya-period Kannada inscription dated 1119 CE. It was discovered at the Male-Mallappa Temple in Bagali, in the present-day Ballari district of Karnataka. The inscription records that the Mahajanas (local influential citizens or community leaders) of the village presented two Gadyanas to the local official on every occasion of Deepawali. One of these Gadyanas was donated for the service of the temple deity, Nileshwaradeva. This record demonstrates that Deepawali was connected not only with household celebrations but also with local social and religious institutions. Donations to temples and arrangements for lighting lamps reveal the public and institutional dimensions of the festival.
The Persian scholar Al-Biruni, who visited India in the eleventh century, described Hindu festivals in his celebrated work Kitab-ul-Hind. His account includes a reference to Deepawali, celebrated on the new moon day of the month of Kartika. He describes customs such as wearing new clothes, exchanging gifts, visiting temples and lighting lamps at night. The account of this foreign scholar is an important historical source for understanding the religious practices and social customs of that period.
Goddess Lakshmi occupies a special place in the religious traditions associated with Deepawali. The famous Shri Sukta, found in the Khila tradition associated with the Rigveda, contains the following invocation:
हिरण्यवर्णां हरिणीं सुवर्णरजतस्रजाम्।
चन्द्रां हिरण्मयीं लक्ष्मीं जातवेदो म आवह॥
(Shri Sukta, Mantra 1)
The mantra invokes Goddess Lakshmi, radiant like gold, adorned with garlands of gold and silver, and possessing a golden splendour. The tradition of Lakshmi worship during Deepawali reflects the religious aspiration for prosperity, wealth and abundance.
When these historical sources are examined together, a gradual picture of the evolution of Deepawali emerges. Early literary references to festivals such as Yaksharatri, the description of the Deepamala celebration on Kartika Amavasya in the Nilamata Purana, accounts of Deepotsav in Sanskrit plays and Jain literature, and the Bagali inscription of 1119 CE represent different stages in the development of this festival. Al-Biruni’s account further confirms that by the eleventh century, Deepawali had become a recognised and significant festival in Indian society.
